Muslim Brotherhood: How It Started, How It Spread and Its Role in the Wars Shaping the Middle East

 

Muslim Brotherhood: How It Started, How It Spread and Its Role in the Wars Shaping the Middle East

The Middle East has been shaped by wars, religious disagreements, political struggles and battles over land and power for more than a century. Behind some of the region's political movements is an organization that has survived almost 100 years of arrests, wars, political victories, military coups and government crackdowns.

That organization is the Muslim Brotherhood.

Founded in Egypt in 1928 by Hassan al-Banna, the Muslim Brotherhood started as a religious and social reform movement. Its founders wanted Muslims to return to what they considered a stronger Islamic way of life and to resist what they saw as harmful Western influence.

Over time, however, the organization became deeply involved in politics. It spread from Egypt into Palestine, Jordan, Syria, Lebanon and other countries.

Its history is complicated. Some Brotherhood branches have participated in elections and built schools, hospitals, charities and political parties. Other organizations that emerged from Brotherhood networks later adopted armed struggle.

One of the most important examples is Hamas, the Palestinian organization that emerged from the Muslim Brotherhood's network in Gaza in the 1980s.

This connection is one reason the Brotherhood remains an important subject when discussing the Israeli-Palestinian conflict and wider Middle Eastern wars.

But it is important not to treat every Muslim Brotherhood member or branch as identical. The movement has different branches, political organizations and historical experiences in different countries.

How the Muslim Brotherhood Started

The Muslim Brotherhood was founded in Egypt in 1928 by Hassan al-Banna, a schoolteacher and Islamic activist.

Al-Banna believed that many problems facing Muslim societies were connected to the loss of Islamic values and the growing influence of European powers.

Egypt at the time was under strong British influence, while Western ideas were becoming increasingly visible in Egyptian society.

Al-Banna wanted Muslims to organize themselves around Islam and improve society through religious education, social services and political action.

The organization initially focused heavily on education and community work.

It established branches, schools and social programs and gradually attracted thousands of supporters.

The movement's basic idea was that Islam should not be restricted to private religious worship. Instead, Islam should influence personal behaviour, society, politics and government.

Oxford University records that the Brotherhood became increasingly political after its establishment and expanded beyond Egypt, eventually developing branches and related movements across the Arab world.

This was the beginning of a movement that would eventually become one of the most influential Islamist organizations in modern Middle Eastern history.

From Religious Movement to Political Force

As the Brotherhood grew, it became increasingly involved in Egyptian politics.

The organization opposed British influence and became involved in the struggle over Egypt's future.

During the Second World War, some members became involved in anti-British activities. The Brotherhood also developed a secret organization that became involved in violence.

The movement's history therefore contains both peaceful social and political activities and periods of violence.

After the Second World War, relations between the Brotherhood and the Egyptian government became increasingly dangerous.

In 1948, Brotherhood members were accused of attacks and political violence, and the Egyptian government banned the organization.

Hassan al-Banna was assassinated in Cairo in 1949.

His death did not destroy the organization.

Instead, the Brotherhood continued to survive underground.

The Brotherhood and Gamal Abdel Nasser

One of the most important periods in the Brotherhood's history came after the 1952 Egyptian revolution.

The Free Officers movement overthrew King Farouk, and Gamal Abdel Nasser eventually became the country's dominant leader.

At first, the Brotherhood supported the revolution because it believed the new government might create a more Islamic political system.

The relationship quickly collapsed.

Nasser wanted a strong nationalist government, while the Brotherhood wanted Islam to have a much larger role in government and society.

In 1954, a member of the Brotherhood attempted to assassinate Nasser.

The government responded with a massive crackdown.

Thousands of Brotherhood members were arrested.

Some were executed while others spent years in prison.

One of those imprisoned was Sayyid Qutb, who became one of the most influential Islamist thinkers of the 20th century.

Qutb's writings became far more radical than the Brotherhood's original social-reform approach.

His ideas later influenced several militant Islamist organizations, although it is important to distinguish Qutb's intellectual influence from the official policies of every Brotherhood branch.

Qutb was executed by the Egyptian government in 1966.

How the Brotherhood Spread Across the Arab World

The Brotherhood did not remain an Egyptian organization.

Its ideas and organizational model spread into other Arab countries.

Branches and movements appeared in countries including Jordan, Syria and Palestine.

But each branch developed differently.

In Jordan, Brotherhood-linked political organizations participated in elections and parliamentary politics for many years.

In Syria, the Brotherhood eventually became involved in a violent confrontation with the government of Hafez al-Assad.

The Syrian government crushed the uprising, particularly during the bloody 1982 Hama conflict.

In Palestine, the Brotherhood concentrated for years on religious education, charity and social work.

That Palestinian network eventually became connected to the creation of Hamas.

How Hamas Emerged From the Brotherhood

This is one of the most important parts of the story.

Hamas did not simply appear from nowhere.

Its roots are connected to the Palestinian branch of the Muslim Brotherhood.

Sheikh Ahmed Yassin, a Palestinian religious leader, became involved in Brotherhood activities in Gaza.

For years, the Brotherhood concentrated on religious education and social services in the Palestinian territories.

But after the outbreak of the First Intifada in 1987, the situation changed.

Yassin and other activists established Hamas in December 1987.

Hamas became an armed Palestinian Islamist movement fighting Israel.

The Council on Foreign Relations describes Hamas as having emerged from the Palestinian Muslim Brotherhood during the late 1980s.

This is why the Brotherhood is often mentioned when discussing the history of Hamas.

However, saying "the Muslim Brotherhood is Hamas" would be inaccurate.

Hamas developed its own leadership, military organization, political structures and international relationships.

Hamas and the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict

Hamas became one of Israel's major enemies.

It rejected the Oslo peace process and continued armed attacks against Israel.

Over the years, Hamas carried out rocket attacks, suicide bombings and other attacks against Israeli targets.

The United States designated Hamas as a foreign terrorist organization in 1997.

Other governments have also designated Hamas as a terrorist organization.

Hamas eventually won the 2006 Palestinian legislative election.

In 2007, Hamas took control of Gaza after fighting with Fatah.

This created a major political division between Gaza, controlled by Hamas, and the West Bank, where the Palestinian Authority dominated.

The division remains one of the major problems in Palestinian politics.

The October 7, 2023 Attack

The Brotherhood's connection to Hamas became even more important after Hamas launched its October 7, 2023 attack on Israel.

Hamas fighters crossed from Gaza into Israel, killing about 1,200 people and taking more than 200 hostages, according to international estimates.

Israel responded by launching a major military campaign against Hamas in Gaza.

The war caused enormous destruction and a huge humanitarian crisis.

The conflict also spread beyond Gaza.

Hezbollah began fighting Israel from Lebanon.

Iran became increasingly involved in the wider confrontation.

The Houthis in Yemen attacked Israel and shipping in the Red Sea.

Iran-backed groups in Iraq and Syria also became involved.

The result was a conflict that was no longer only an Israel-Hamas war.

It became part of a much wider struggle involving Israel, Iran and several armed groups across the region.

So What Role Does the Muslim Brotherhood Play in These Wars?

This is where the story becomes complicated.

The Muslim Brotherhood does not operate one single army fighting across the Middle East.

Instead, it is a broad movement with different branches and organizations.

Some branches have concentrated on politics.

Others have supported Palestinian resistance.

Some Brotherhood-linked organizations have developed armed wings.

The most important armed organization with Brotherhood roots is Hamas.

There is also a Brotherhood-linked organization in Lebanon known as al-Jamaa al-Islamiyya.

During the conflict involving Israel and Hezbollah, its armed wing, the Al-Fajr Forces, became involved in attacks against Israel.

In March 2026, Carnegie Endowment reported that Israel targeted Brotherhood-affiliated allies of Hezbollah in Lebanon, highlighting the complicated relationship between Lebanese Brotherhood-linked groups, Hezbollah and the wider regional conflict.

The Brotherhood and Iran

Another interesting part of the story is the relationship between Sunni Islamist Brotherhood movements and Iran.

The Muslim Brotherhood is rooted mainly in Sunni Islam.

Iran's ruling system is based on Shia Islam.

Historically, these traditions have had major differences.

Yet political circumstances sometimes brought them closer.

Iran has supported Hamas and other Palestinian armed organizations because of their opposition to Israel.

Hamas has also had a complicated relationship with Iran.

The two sides disagreed over the Syrian civil war, but their relationship later improved.

This means the Middle East cannot always be explained simply as "Sunni versus Shia."

Political interests, opposition to Israel, regional power and national interests can bring groups together despite major religious differences.

The Brotherhood During the Arab Spring

Another major chapter came in 2011.

Protests spread across the Arab world in what became known as the Arab Spring.

Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak was forced from power.

For the first time, the Muslim Brotherhood had an opportunity to compete openly for political power.

Its political organization won a large number of parliamentary seats.

Then its candidate, Mohamed Morsi, won Egypt's presidential election in 2012.

Morsi became the first civilian president elected through a competitive presidential election in modern Egyptian history.

But his government faced enormous opposition.

Egypt's economy was struggling.

The political system was deeply divided.

Millions of Egyptians protested against Morsi.

In July 2013, the military removed him from office.

The Egyptian government then launched a major crackdown on the Brotherhood.

The organization was banned.

Thousands of members and supporters were arrested, while many others fled abroad or went underground.

Morsi himself died in custody in 2019.

The Brotherhood has remained banned in Egypt since then.

Why Egypt Is Still Important

Egypt remains central to the Brotherhood story because it is where the organization was born.

The current Egyptian government considers the Brotherhood a major security threat.

The Brotherhood, however, rejects the accusation that it is a terrorist organization and says it has been persecuted for political reasons.

This disagreement has continued for years.

The Brotherhood's opponents argue that its ideology can create an environment that supports extremism.

Its supporters argue that the organization has been unfairly treated and that many of its members have participated in peaceful politics.

The reality is more complicated because the movement has contained different factions and has changed over nearly a century.

Jordan and Lebanon

The Brotherhood also developed political influence in Jordan.

The movement's political wing, the Islamic Action Front, has participated in elections.

But relations with the Jordanian government have deteriorated in recent years.

In 2026, the United States designated the Egyptian and Jordanian Brotherhood branches as Specially Designated Global Terrorists and designated Lebanon's al-Jamaa al-Islamiyya as a Foreign Terrorist Organization and Specially Designated Global Terrorist.

Washington said the organizations had supported Hamas.

The Brotherhood rejected the accusations.

This was a major development because it showed that the Brotherhood remained an international security issue nearly a century after its creation.

America's New Pressure on the Brotherhood

In January 2026, the United States took action against Brotherhood branches in Egypt, Jordan and Lebanon.

The U.S. Treasury accused the Egyptian and Jordanian branches of providing material support to Hamas.

The U.S. government also accused some Brotherhood-linked networks of helping with fundraising and other forms of support.

The Brotherhood rejected the accusations.

It is important to understand that the U.S. action was against specific branches, not automatically every person or organization anywhere that has ever been influenced by Brotherhood ideas.

That distinction matters because the Brotherhood is a large international movement with different branches and political structures.

New Financial Crackdown in 2026

The pressure did not stop with the January designations.

In July 2026, the U.S. Treasury announced additional sanctions against a senior Egyptian Brotherhood official and several people and organizations it said were connected to fundraising for Hamas.

The Treasury said some organizations were being used as fronts for moving money toward Hamas's military wing.

These accusations are part of Washington's wider effort to disrupt Hamas's financial networks and organizations that it believes support the group.

The developments show that the Brotherhood's influence today is not only about elections or religious teaching.

Governments increasingly view some Brotherhood-linked networks through the lens of national security, financing and armed conflict.

The Brotherhood's Role in the Current Middle East Conflicts

Today, the Brotherhood's role differs from country to country.

Gaza

The most obvious connection is Hamas.

Hamas grew out of the Palestinian Brotherhood network and remains the most powerful Brotherhood-derived armed movement.

However, Hamas has its own leadership and military organization.

The Gaza war has therefore made the historical Brotherhood-Hamas relationship a major international security issue.

Lebanon

Lebanon's al-Jamaa al-Islamiyya has Brotherhood roots.

Its armed wing, the Al-Fajr Forces, has participated in fighting connected to the wider Israel-Lebanon conflict.

Its relationship with Hezbollah has also brought it into the broader confrontation involving Israel and Iran-backed groups.

Egypt

Egypt's Brotherhood is largely underground following the 2013 crackdown.

The Egyptian government continues to regard it as a serious threat.

Its supporters, however, continue to argue that the organization has been unfairly banned and persecuted.

Jordan

Jordan has traditionally allowed more political space for Brotherhood-linked groups than Egypt.

But tensions have increased, particularly because of the war in Gaza and allegations of connections between Brotherhood-linked individuals and militant activities.

Syria

The Syrian Brotherhood has a long history of conflict with the Assad family.

The organization's struggle against the Syrian government became particularly violent during the late 1970s and early 1980s.

The Syrian conflict later became much larger than the Brotherhood, involving many opposition groups, jihadist organizations, foreign armies and international powers.

Is the Muslim Brotherhood Responsible for All Middle Eastern Wars?

No.

This is a very important point.

The Muslim Brotherhood is sometimes portrayed as if it controls every Islamist movement in the Middle East.

That is not correct.

The region contains many independent organizations.

Hezbollah is a Lebanese Shia movement closely connected to Iran.

The Houthis are a Yemeni movement with their own history and ideology.

Palestinian Islamic Jihad has its own origins and is strongly connected to Iran.

Hamas has Brotherhood roots but developed into an independent organization.

There are also numerous militant organizations that have no direct organizational relationship with the Muslim Brotherhood.

Therefore, it would be misleading to blame the Brotherhood for every war or every attack in the Middle East.

Why the Brotherhood Remains Powerful After Almost 100 Years

One reason is its ability to survive.

The Brotherhood has been banned.

Its leaders have been imprisoned.

Its members have been executed.

Its offices have been closed.

Its supporters have been forced into exile.

Yet the movement has continued to exist.

Another reason is its social network.

Historically, Brotherhood organizations have established schools, hospitals, charities, religious centers and community organizations.

That helped the movement develop relationships with ordinary people.

Its political message also appealed to people who believed that corrupt governments and foreign influence had weakened Arab and Muslim societies.

The Biggest Change in the Brotherhood's History

Perhaps the biggest transformation is that the movement that began in Egypt as a religious and social reform organization eventually became the ideological parent or inspiration for a much wider Islamist political environment.

Some of those movements chose elections.

Others chose armed struggle.

Some combined politics and armed resistance.

This explains why the Brotherhood remains controversial.

Supporters see it as a movement for Islamic reform and political participation.

Critics see its ideology as a danger to secular governments and, in some cases, as a source of extremism.

Different governments have therefore treated the organization differently.

What Happens Next?

The future of the Muslim Brotherhood will depend heavily on what happens in Egypt, Gaza, Jordan, Lebanon and the wider Middle East.

If Hamas remains politically and militarily important, the Brotherhood's historical connection to Hamas will continue to attract international attention.

If the Gaza conflict produces a lasting political settlement, Brotherhood-linked groups could face a different political environment.

Meanwhile, the American sanctions against Brotherhood branches could make international fundraising and political activity more difficult.

The movement may therefore face even greater pressure in the years ahead.

But history shows that banning the Brotherhood has not automatically eliminated it.

The organization has survived nearly a century by changing its methods, moving underground when necessary and developing political and social networks in different countries.

Final Thoughts

The Muslim Brotherhood began in Egypt in 1928 with Hassan al-Banna's effort to revive Islamic values and reform society.

From those beginnings, it grew into a movement that spread throughout the Arab world.

It fought political battles with governments, survived prison camps and executions, participated in elections, won power in Egypt, lost that power through a military takeover and became connected to movements involved in some of the Middle East's most serious conflicts.

Its relationship with Hamas is especially important.

Hamas grew from the Palestinian Brotherhood network, but Hamas is not simply another name for the Muslim Brotherhood.

The same distinction must be made with other organizations.

The Brotherhood has different branches, different histories and different levels of involvement in politics and armed conflict.

Today, as wars and tensions continue across Gaza, Lebanon and the wider Middle East, the Brotherhood remains one of the organizations that cannot be ignored when trying to understand the region's modern history.

Nearly 100 years after Hassan al-Banna founded it in Egypt, the movement is still at the centre of arguments over Islam, politics, democracy, armed resistance, Israel, Palestine and the future of the Arab world.

Its story is therefore not just the story of one organization.

It is part of the much larger story of how religion, politics, war and power have shaped the modern Middle East.

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